Immunotoxicity is assessed using a variety of in vitro and in vivo assays. In vitro assays often involve exposing immune cells to nanoparticles and measuring markers of cell activation, cytokine production, and cell viability. Commonly used in vitro systems include [macrophage cell lines]() and primary human immune cells. In vivo studies involve animal models where the immune response is monitored following nanoparticle exposure. These studies measure parameters like cytokine levels, immune cell counts, and histopathological changes in tissues.
