Nanoparticles can disrupt cell membranes through several mechanisms: 1. Direct Penetration: Nanoparticles can insert themselves into the lipid bilayer, causing physical disruption. 2. Oxidative Stress: Certain nanoparticles generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to oxidative damage and membrane destabilization. 3. Lipid Extraction: Some nanomaterials can extract lipids from the membrane, weakening its structural integrity. 4. Mechanical Stress: Nanoparticles can induce mechanical forces that deform or puncture the membrane.
