What Techniques are Used to Achieve Low Temperatures in Nanotechnology?
1. Helium Cryostats: These devices use liquid helium to cool samples to temperatures as low as a few Kelvin. They are commonly used in low-temperature physics experiments. 2. Dilution Refrigerators: These systems can achieve temperatures below 1 Kelvin by exploiting the mixing properties of helium-3 and helium-4 isotopes. 3. Adiabatic Demagnetization: This method involves the demagnetization of a paramagnetic material to achieve ultra-low temperatures.
