2. Spectroscopy: Methods such as Raman and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy help in understanding the chemical composition and bonding of nanomaterials.
3. Simulation and Modelling: Computational tools and models are used to predict the behavior and properties of nanomaterials, aiding in the validation of experimental results.
4. Biological and Environmental Testing: In vitro and in vivo testing help in assessing the biological interactions and environmental impact of nanomaterials.