Nanoparticles can induce oxidative stress through several mechanisms: 1. Surface Reactivity: The high surface area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles increases their reactivity, leading to the generation of ROS. 2. Metal Ion Release: Certain nanoparticles, such as those containing transition metals, can release metal ions that catalyze the formation of ROS. 3. Interaction with Mitochondria: Nanoparticles can interact with mitochondria, disrupting their function and leading to increased ROS production. 4. Immune Response: Nanoparticles can activate immune cells, which in turn produce ROS as part of the body's defense mechanism.
