Oxidative Stress: Nanoparticles can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to cellular damage and inflammation. Physical Damage: Sharp or irregularly shaped nanoparticles can cause physical damage to cell membranes. Immune Response: Nanoparticles can be recognized as foreign bodies, triggering an immune response that can cause inflammation and tissue damage. Genotoxicity: Some nanoparticles can interact with DNA, potentially causing mutations and cancer.
