Several techniques are employed to characterize surfaces at the nanoscale. Some of the most common ones include:
1. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): AFM provides high-resolution imaging of surfaces by scanning a sharp tip over the material. It can measure surface roughness, texture, and mechanical properties.
2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): SEM uses a focused beam of electrons to generate high-resolution images of a surface. It is widely used for analyzing surface morphology and composition.
3. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): XPS identifies the elemental composition and chemical states of the surface by measuring the kinetic energy of electrons ejected from a material when irradiated with X-rays.
4. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): TEM offers high-resolution imaging and can provide information on the internal structure of nanoparticles by transmitting electrons through a thin sample.
5. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): FTIR is used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption, emission, or photoconductivity of a solid, liquid, or gas, helping in identifying molecular structures and chemical bonds.
