Several advanced techniques are used to measure surface topography at the nanoscale. These include:
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): This technique provides high-resolution 3D images of the surface by scanning a sharp tip over the surface. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): SEM uses focused beams of electrons to generate detailed images of the surface structure. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM): STM provides atomic-level imaging by measuring the tunneling current between a conductive tip and the surface.
