There are several methods to create these defects:
1. Thermal Processes: Heating a material can increase the number of vacancies due to the increased atomic vibrations. 2. Irradiation: Exposing materials to radiation can displace atoms, creating both vacancies and interstitials. 3. Mechanical Stress: Applying stress can induce defects in the crystal lattice, particularly in nanocomposites and thin films. 4. Chemical Methods: Chemical reactions can introduce vacancies, especially in oxide materials where oxygen vacancies are common.
