Several techniques are used to characterize surfaces and interfaces in nanotechnology:
1. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Provides high-resolution images of surfaces, allowing the study of surface morphology and composition.
2. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Offers detailed information about the internal structure of nanomaterials at atomic resolution.
3. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): Measures surface topography at the nanoscale and can provide information about surface roughness and mechanical properties.
4. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): Analyzes the elemental composition and chemical states of surfaces.
5. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR): Utilized to study interactions at the surface of nanomaterials, particularly in biosensing applications.
