Operational failures in nanotechnology are detected using various techniques:
1. Microscopy: Techniques like Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) are used to visualize defects at the nanoscale. 2. Spectroscopy: Raman Spectroscopy and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) help in identifying chemical and structural defects. 3. Electrical Testing: Measuring electrical properties can reveal inconsistencies in nanoelectronic devices. 4. Mechanical Testing: Nanoindentation is used to test the mechanical properties of nanomaterials.
