surface and interface roughness:

How is Roughness Measured?

Roughness is typically quantified using parameters like Ra (average roughness) and RMS (root mean square roughness). These parameters can be measured using techniques such as Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and X-ray Reflectometry (XRR). Each method has its advantages and limitations, depending on the resolution and type of material being analyzed.

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